Reformed churches do not confess that immersion is unwarranted or unbiblical though we do have a preference for effusion (sprinkling). Historically, orthodox Christians have accepted any mode of Baptism, with immersion certainly being most popular.
In the Didache (written around 100 AD), we have the earliest extra-Biblical information regarding the practices of the early Christian church. This document teaches that believers were to be plunged in flowing water after a period of instruction and fasting. Those who were unable to be baptised in this manner could however be baptised by having water poured over their head (Didache 7:1).
Throughout church history including the time before and after the Reformation, immersion was a common baptismal practice. This is seen in the writings of Thomas Aquinas (pre-Reformation: Summa theologica, p. 3; q. 66; art. 7) as well as the Book of Common Prayer (post-Reformation: the instructions for baptism mention immersion even (it appears) for children).
Within the RCSA there is no opposition to immersion except where immersion is held forth as the only valid form of baptism. Since we believe that the essence of Baptism is purification and that water is a sign of the blood of Christ, not the quantity of water but the use of water is of importance. There is thus room within the RCSA for children to be baptised by immersion if that is the preference of their parents.
We understand that the fundamental idea being conveyed by baptism is that of purification. In question and answer #69 of the Heidelberg Catechism we confess the following:
Q. How does holy baptism signify and seal to you that the one sacrifice of Christ on the cross benefits you?
A. In this way: Christ instituted this outward washing and with it gave the promise that, as surely as water washes away the dirt from the body, so certainly His blood and Spirit wash away the impurity of my soul, that is, all my sins.
Our confession regarding the fundamental symbolism of baptism is based upon what we read about Baptism in the New Testament where it symbolises spiritual cleansing or purification (Acts 2:38; Acts 22:16; 1 Corinthians 6:11; Titus 3:5; Hebrews 10:22; 1 Peter 3:21). The emphasis in the symbolism of Baptism is thus not on the going down and coming up but washing/cleansing.
In general, it is true that the Greek word for Baptism does imply immersion or submersion. However, there are occasions where it is used for other sorts of washing with water. For example, in 1 Corinthians 10:2, Paul describes Israel’s journey through the waters during the Exodus, stating that they were ‘baptised into Moses’ even though they did not even get wet! The Israelities were not immersed in the waters of the Red Sea. In Hebrews 9:10 the word is used to refer to ritual washings whilst the baptism of the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:5; 2:4,17,33) was a pouring out of the Spirit. All this is to say that the Greek word does not only and always mean immersion.
These verses are not conclusive. We don’t know for sure if John’s Baptism was by immersion only or the pouring of water over a person’s head. John 3:23 suggests that immersion is most likely, though even then it does not tell us if it was a full body immersion or just partial. We have to make assumptions based on inferences from the Bible as well as extra-Biblical resources.
Even if we accept that the baptism of John and Jesus’ disciples (John 4:1-2) was by complete immersion (a logical assumption), this does not mean that immersion is essential to the meaning of baptism. It does however confirm that immersion is a legitimate form of baptism.
There certainly is a lot of evidence to show that baptism by immersion took place in Israel prior to John the Baptist, especially from Rabbinical writings and Jewish tradition.
It should be emphasised however that even though the Jews had many ceremonial rituals and washings (some of them commanded in Leviticus), the Old Testament does not connect these rituals with signs or seals of the covenant of grace. Jewish rabbis might do so, but the Scriptures do not. Thus even if Jewish tradition held that Gentiles had to be immersed in water in addition to circumcision if they were to become part of God’s people, this is not a Biblical command.
There is also evidence in the Jewish Talmud that the Jews baptised the children of Gentiles during their proselyte baptism if those children were below a certain age (13 for boys and 12 for girls). If a family converted to Judaism, the Talmud allowed that the entire household, including babies, could be baptized into their new faith—although when the child came of age, he could reject the faith and the baptism. Babies and children of Jews or proselytes who had converted earlier were not baptized, as they were considered to be born into the faith. This practice is consistent with the Biblical teaching regarding the covenant of grace. Children are part of the covenant of grace as a matter of principle. Thus the Jews circumcised their children and they therefore also baptised the children of Gentile converts. An individualistic way of thinking is foreign to the Bible. A family is a unit thus if the father converted, the entire household was assumed to follow.
If we accept that the Jews at the time of the New Testament understood Baptism to involve immersion (as confirmed by Jewish sources), we should also accept that they were willing to baptise children of believing parents (also confirmed by Jewish sources). The practice of immersion did not exclude children from Baptism in Israel.
The same extra-Biblical resources which support Baptism by immersion also support the Baptism of infants. Jews (as testified by the Talmud) as well as Christians (as testified by the history of the early church, e.g. Tertullian (155-240 AD), Origen (184-253 AD) and the Council of Carthage (253 AD)) baptised children. According to Origen (184-253 AD) the baptism of children was a tradition inherited from the apostles.
We can accept that Baptism by immersion was practiced in Israel, that it was the practice in the New Testament and the preference for large periods of church history. However, the New Testament writers do not insist upon Baptism by immersion. The New Testament does not explicitly tell us that Baptism must involve a person being submerged completely in water. Immersion is a proper mode of Baptism, but so is effusion since they both symbolise the essence of baptism, purification.
When Israel passed through the Red Sea, they were not immersed in any water. The Egyptians were immersed and destroyed, the Israelities did not get wet as they crossed over on dry land. The Book of Exodus repeatedly reminds us that Moses and the Israelites went through “on dry ground” (see Exodus 14:16, 22; 15:19; Psalm 66:6; Hebrews 11:29).
Peter compares God’s judgment-flood to baptism (1 Peter 3:20,21, see also 2 Peter 3;6, 7). Notice however who was dry and who was wet. Noah and his family were saved (kept dry in the ark) whilst the inhabitants of the land were destroyed (wet with water). Flood waters certainly imply total immersion, but Noah and his family were not immersed.
In these verses, when Peter talks about Baptism, his focus is on the topic of ‘washing’. The filth of the earth was cleansed by the flood waters. This water destroyed the ungodly but God preserved Noah. In the future, fire will come to purify and cleanse the earth (2 Peter 3; fire is often used in the Bible in the context of cleansing/purification Numbers 31:23; 1 Peter 1:7). Baptism doesn’t save by washing water from the body (as if the sign itself is the thing signified). Baptism saves by what it signifies - as surely as water washes dirt from the body, those who have faith in Jesus Christ are assured of a good conscience toward God on the basis of Christ’s death and resurrection.
Peter compares God’s judgement flood to baptism, but his comparison does not focus on the symbolism going down and coming up (immersion) but the symbolism of washing (dirt from the body).
The fact that Jesus came up out of the water could refer to him having been immersed or simply walking back to the river bank after having had water poured on his head. Most likely he was baptised by immersion, but this does not imply that he immersed himself (he did come to John after all).
In Matthew 28:19, the apostles are commanded to baptise (they must perform the action) and Paul talks about how he baptised (1 Corinthians 1:14-16). The active person in baptism is not the recipient.
Finally, if Jews baptised the children of proselytes (as stated in the Babylonian Talmud), then these children would certainly not immerse themselves, especially if they were infants.
We are not told much about the baptism of the disciples, in fact, this is the only place in all of the Gospels where we read of them baptising individuals. Given the fact that John most likely baptised by some kind of immersion (John 3:23), it makes sense to understand that this is also the way in which the disciples would have baptised, especially since their baptism is compared with that of John (John 4:1). Indeed, the fact that Paul refers to baptism as the burial with Christ into death (symbolised by immersion into water) and the rising with Christ to a new life (symbolised by the rising out of the water - cf. Romans 6:1ff) certainly indicates that immersion was the primary mode of baptism in the New Testament.
Though Baptism can be seen as an emblem of the believer’s dying and rising again (as in Romans 6:1-4), elsewhere in the New Testament it is primarily connected with the idea of washing/cleansing/forgiveness of sins (Acts 2:38, 22:16; 1 Corinthians 6:11; Titus 3:5; Hebrews 10:22; 1 Peter 3:2).
From the history of the early Christian church, we know that they were willing to baptise by means of effusion (sprinkling or pouring water upon someone). Perhaps this was done for the sake of little children, or for the sake of convenience when sufficient water for immersion baptism was not available (e.g. Didache). The early church history thus affirms the Biblical testimony that the primary symbolism was not the going down and coming up, but washing/purification.
The Baptism of John was a baptism meant to prepare people for the coming of Jesus Christ. He stressed the necessity of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. He most probably immersed people and his baptism may have included the symbolism of dying to sin (down) and rising to new life (up). However, immersion (down, up) is not the primary symbolism of baptism in the New Testament, washing/purification is.
The Reformed practice of sprinkling draws from the rich history of the Biblical practice of sprinkling for sanctification and salvation.
In Scripture, purification is effected by sprinkling in Numbers 8:7; 19:13, 18-20 and Ezekiel 36:35. Though other passages from Leviticus might suggest immersion, immersion was not the only way of effecting purification. It could also be done by sprinkling.
Salvation from sin is also symbolised in the sprinkling of blood. In Exodus 12:22, the hyssop branch is dipped (immersed) but the blood is touched/painted on the doorposts. In Exodus 24:1-8, blood is sprinkled upon the people. With the old testament sacrifices, blood was sprinkled upon the sides of the altar (Leviticus 8:19) as well as those who were ceremonially unclean (Hebrews 9:13-14). The idea of cleansing from sin through sprinkled blood is picked up in the New Testament (Hebrews 10:22 and 1 Peter 1:2).
The water sprinkled upon a child (or adult) is thus a sign of cleansing from sin just as the sprinkled blood of bulls and goats was in the old covenant.